Medieval - Blog Posts
List of medieval European scientists
Anthemius of Tralles (ca. 474 – ca. 534): a professor of geometry and architecture, authored many influential works on mathematics and was one of the architects of the famed Hagia Sophia, the largest building in the world at its time. His works were among the most important source texts in the Arab world and Western Europe for centuries after.
John Philoponus (ca. 490–ca. 570): also known as John the Grammarian, a Christian Byzantine philosopher, launched a revolution in the understanding of physics by critiquing and correcting the earlier works of Aristotle. In the process he proposed important concepts such as a rudimentary notion of inertia and the invariant acceleration of falling objects. Although his works were repressed at various times in the Byzantine Empire, because of religious controversy, they would nevertheless become important to the understanding of physics throughout Europe and the Arab world.
Paul of Aegina (ca. 625–ca. 690): considered by some to be the greatest Christian Byzantine surgeon, developed many novel surgical techniques and authored the medical encyclopedia Medical Compendium in Seven Books. The book on surgery in particular was the definitive treatise in Europe and the Islamic world for hundreds of years.
The Venerable Bede (ca. 672–735): a Christian monk of the monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow who wrote a work On the Nature of Things, several books on the mathematical / astronomical subject of computus, the most influential entitled On the Reckoning of Time. He made original discoveries concerning the nature of the tides and his works on computus became required elements of the training of clergy, and thus greatly influenced early medieval knowledge of the natural world.
Rabanus Maurus (c. 780 – 856): a Christian monk and teacher, later archbishop of Mainz, who wrote a treatise on Computus and the encyclopedic work De universo. His teaching earned him the accolade of "Praeceptor Germaniae," or "the teacher of Germany."
Abbas Ibn Firnas (810 – 887): a polymath and inventor in Muslim Spain, made contributions in a variety of fields and is most known for his contributions to glass-making and aviation. He developed novel ways of manufacturing and using glass. He broke his back at an unsuccessful attempt at flying a primitive hang glider in 875.
Pope Sylvester II (c. 946–1003): a Christian scholar, teacher, mathematician, and later pope, reintroduced the abacus and armillary sphere to Western Europe after they had been lost for centuries following the Greco-Roman era. He was also responsible in part for the spread of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in Western Europe.
Maslamah al-Majriti (died 1008): a mathematician, astronomer, and chemist in Muslim Spain, made contributions in many areas, from new techniques for surveying to updating and improving the astronomical tables of al-Khwarizmi and inventing a process for producing mercury oxide.[citation needed] He is most famous, though, for having helped transmit knowledge of mathematics and astronomy to Muslim Spain and Christian Western Europe.
Abulcasis (936-1013): a physician and scientist in Muslim Spain, is considered to be the father of modern surgery. He wrote numerous medical texts, developed many innovative surgical instruments, and developed a variety of new surgical techniques and practices. His texts were considered the definitive works on surgery in Europe until the Renaissance.
Constantine the African (c. 1020&–1087): a Christian native of Carthage, is best known for his translating of ancient Greek and Roman medical texts from Arabic into Latin while working at the Schola Medica Salernitana in Salerno, Italy. Among the works he translated were those of Hippocrates and Galen.
Arzachel (1028–1087): the foremost astronomer of the early second millennium, lived in Muslim Spain and greatly expanded the understanding and accuracy of planetary models and terrestrial measurements used for navigation. He developed key technologies including the equatorium and universal latitude-independent astrolabe.
Avempace (died 1138): a famous physicist from Muslim Spain who had an important influence on later physicists such as Galileo. He was the first to theorize the concept of a reaction force for every force exerted.
Adelard of Bath (c. 1080 – c. 1152): was a 12th-century English scholar, known for his work in astronomy, astrology, philosophy and mathematics.
Avenzoar (1091–1161): from Muslim Spain, introduced an experimental method in surgery, employing animal testing in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients.[4] He also performed the earliest dissections and postmortem autopsies on both humans as well as animals.
Robert Grosseteste (1168–1253): Bishop of Lincoln, was the central character of the English intellectual movement in the first half of the 13th century and is considered the founder of scientific thought in Oxford. He had a great interest in the natural world and wrote texts on the mathematical sciences of optics, astronomy and geometry. In his commentaries on Aristotle's scientific works, he affirmed that experiments should be used in order to verify a theory, testing its consequences. Roger Bacon was influenced by his work on optics and astronomy.
Albert the Great (1193–1280): Doctor Universalis, was one of the most prominent representatives of the philosophical tradition emerging from the Dominican Order. He is one of the thirty-three Saints of the Roman Catholic Church honored with the title of Doctor of the Church. He became famous for his vast knowledge and for his defence of the pacific coexistence between science and religion. Albert was an essential figure in introducing Greek and Islamic science into the medieval universities, although not without hesitation with regard to particular Aristotelian theses. In one of his most famous sayings he asserted: "Science does not consist in ratifying what others say, but of searching for the causes of phenomena." Thomas Aquinas was his most famous pupil.
John of Sacrobosco (c. 1195 – c. 1256): was a scholar, monk, and astronomer (probably English, but possibly Irish or Scottish) who taught at the University of Paris and wrote an authoritative and influential mediaeval astronomy text, the Tractatus de Sphaera; the Algorismus, which introduced calculations with Hindu-Arabic numerals into the European university curriculum; the Compotus ecclesiasticis on Easter reckoning; and the Tractatus de quadrante on the construction and use of the astronomical quadrant.
Jordanus de Nemore (late 12th, early 13th century): was one of the major pure mathematicians of the Middle Ages. He wrote treatises on mechanics ("the science of weights"), on basic and advanced arithmetic, on algebra, on geometry, and on the mathematics of stereographic projection.
Villard de Honnecourt (fl. 13th century): a French engineer and architect who made sketches of mechanical devices such as automatons and perhaps drew a picture of an early escapement mechanism for clockworks.
Roger Bacon (1214–94): Doctor Admirabilis, joined the Franciscan Order around 1240 where, influenced by Grosseteste, Alhacen and others, he dedicated himself to studies where he implemented the observation of nature and experimentation as the foundation of natural knowledge. Bacon wrote in such areas as mechanics, astronomy, geography and, most of all, optics. The optical research of Grosseteste and Bacon established optics as an area of study at the medieval university and formed the basis for a continuous tradition of research into optics that went all the way up to the beginning of the 17th century and the foundation of modern optics by Kepler.[8]
Ibn al-Baitar (died 1248): a botanist and pharmacist in Muslim Spain, researched over 1400 types of plants, foods, and drugs and compiled pharmaceutical and medical encyclopedias documenting his research. These were used in the Islamic world and Europe until the 19th century.
Theodoric Borgognoni (1205-1296): was an Italian Dominican friar and Bishop of Cervia who promoted the uses of both antiseptics and anaesthetics in surgery. His written work had a deep impact on Henri de Mondeville, who studied under him while living in Italy and later became the court physician for King Philip IV of France.
William of Saliceto (1210-1277): was an Italian surgeon of Lombardy who advanced medical knowledge and even challenged the work of the renowned Greco-Roman surgeon Galen (129-216 AD) by arguing that allowing pus to form in wounds was detrimental to the health of he patient.
Thomas Aquinas (1227–74): Doctor Angelicus, was an Italian theologian and friar in the Dominican Order. As his mentor Albert the Great, he is a Catholic Saint and Doctor of the Church. In addition to his extensive commentaries on Aristotle's scientific treatises, he was also said to have written an important alchemical treatise titled Aurora Consurgens. However, his most lasting contribution to the scientific development of the period was his role in the incorporation of Aristotelianism into the Scholastic tradition.
Arnaldus de Villa Nova (1235-1313): was an alchemist, astrologer, and physician from the Crown of Aragon who translated various Arabic medical texts, including those of Avicenna, and performed optical experiments with camera obscura.
John Duns Scotus (1266–1308): Doctor Subtilis, was a member of the Franciscan Order, philosopher and theologian. Emerging from the academic environment of the University of Oxford. where the presence of Grosseteste and Bacon was still palpable, he had a different view on the relationship between reason and faith as that of Thomas Aquinas. For Duns Scotus, the truths of faith could not be comprehended through the use of reason. Philosophy, hence, should not be a servant to theology, but act independently. He was the mentor of one of the greatest names of philosophy in the Middle Ages: William of Ockham.
Mondino de Liuzzi (c. 1270-1326): was an Italian physician, surgeon, and anatomist from Bologna who was one of the first in Medieval Europe to advocate for the public dissection of cadavers for advancing the field of anatomy. This followed a long-held Christian ban on dissections performed by the Alexandrian school in the late Roman Empire.
William of Ockham (1285–1350): Doctor Invincibilis, was an English Franciscan friar, philosopher, logician and theologian. Ockham defended the principle of parsimony, which could already be seen in the works of his mentor Duns Scotus. His principle later became known as Occam's Razor and states that if there are various equally valid explanations for a fact, then the simplest one should be chosen. This became a foundation of what would come to be known as the scientific method and one of the pillars of reductionism in science. Ockham probably died of the Black Plague. Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme were his followers.
Jacopo Dondi dell'Orologio (1290-1359): was an Italian doctor, clockmaker, and astronomer from Padua who wrote on a number of scientific subjects such as pharmacology, surgery, astrology, and natural sciences. He also designed an astronomical clock.
Richard of Wallingford (1292-1336): an English abbot, mathematician, astronomer, and horologist who designed an astronomical clock as well as an equatorium to calculate the lunar, solar and planetary longitudes, as well as predict eclipses.
Jean Buridan (1300–58): was a French philosopher and priest. Although he was one of the most famous and influent philosophers of the late Middle Ages, his work today is not renowned by people other than philosophers and historians. One of his most significant contributions to science was the development of the theory of impetus, that explained the movement of projectiles and objects in free-fall. This theory gave way to the dynamics of Galileo Galilei and for Isaac Newton's famous principle of Inertia.
Guy de Chauliac (1300-1368): was a French physician and surgeon who wrote the Chirurgia magna, a widely read publication throughout medieval Europe that became one of the standard textbooks for medical knowledge for the next three centuries. During the Black Death he clearly distinguished Bubonic Plague and Pneumonic Plague as separate diseases, that they were contagious from person to person, and offered advice such as quarantine to avoid their spread in the population. He also served as the personal physician for three successive popes of the Avignon Papacy.
John Arderne (1307-1392): was an English physician and surgeon who invented his own anesthetic that combined hemlock, henbane, and opium. In his writings, he also described how to properly excise and remove the abscess caused by anal fistula.
Nicole Oresme (c. 1323–82): was one of the most original thinkers of the 14th century. A theologian and bishop of Lisieux, he wrote influential treatises in both Latin and French on mathematics, physics, astronomy, and economics. In addition to these contributions, Oresme strongly opposed astrology and speculated about the possibility of a plurality of worlds.
Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio (c. 1330-1388): was a clockmaker from Padua, Italy who designed the astarium, an astronomical clock and planetarium that utilized the escapement mechanism that had been recently invented in Europe. He also attempted to describe the mechanics of the solar system with mathematical precision.
I'mma just post some random snippets of text about the plague because it's my favorite topic to make a PowerPoint to and I am not at all unhealthily fixated on it. In fact it is very normal to have a favorite illness, shut up!
Towers and trains at Oberwesel
Downstream from Bacharach and Kaub seen in the most recent posts, Oberwesel is a gorgeous town on the left-hand side of the Rhine, with many of its medieval walls and towers still standing. The railway was built alongside these walls near the river, and even goes between two towers, the Katzenturm (left) and Ochsenturm (right). Add the hills in the background, and it is certainly a spectacular train spot.
Here is another tower, the Haagsturm, in a view from the station platforms. (I just got off that train and failed to position myself in time to get the sign out of the way bottom left.) The two trains shown were the only types visible that day, as the intercity traffic was diverted to the other side of the river via Wiesbaden.
Further from the river, another section of town walls and towers runs through the hills. In the centre of the picture above, taken from the short but steep Elfenlay trail, is the Kuhhirtenturm (with raised drawbridge), with St Martin's Church rising behind it.
Oh alright, have a wider view from the Elfenlay.
Schirmeck castle
Overseeing the valley of Schirmeck, the castle, built for the Bishop of Strasbourg in the 13th century, is a short walk and climb from the town centre. As it was designed to protect a corner of the territory, that's apparently where we get the term: Schirm'eck. It was defeated by the Swedish during the Thirty-Years War, with some of the stone from the ruins being used to build other structures, such as the church.
Today, there's obviously not much of it left, though a square tower was restored and houses a small museum (closed when I visited). The Yoshi art was probably not part of the original episcopal aesthetic...
Pouancé
The small town of Pouancé is on a remarkable geographical "quadruple point", on the border of four départements! A peculiarity that dates back to the Middle Ages, when it was on the battlefront between France-affiliated Anjou and the still fiercely independent Duchy of Brittany. As such, Pouancé had a castle; its Breton counterpart was at Châteaubriant, and both towns were besieged at some point during the 15th century.
With a friend from Châteaubriant, we got to witness barriers being removed as what we guessed were maintenance or renovation works on the path around the castle were finished. The castle itself only opens during the summer, but at least we got to walk all around and get some good views of the castle, through the neighbouring park.
If you're driving into Pouancé from the West, this is how you know you've arrived:
Saint Servan and the Solidor Tower
On the right-hand side of the Rance river, just before the fortified city of Saint Malo on the estuary, is the smaller town of Saint Servan. In fact, it technically isn't a town anymore, it was absorbed by Saint Malo in the 1960s. But for most of history, there was a stark contrast between the two, as Saint Malo fiercely proclaimed its autonomy several times. Hence the Solidor Tower.
Consisting of three tightly-bunched round towers and their connections, the Solidor was built in the 14th century by the Dukes of Brittany as a means to control the Rance estuary, against the rebellious Saint Malo if needed.
Like other fortresses, such as the Bastille in Paris or the towers at La Rochelle (another time maybe), its strategic value soon dwindled, and it seemed best-suited to serve as a prison or as storage during the late 18th-early 19th centuries. It has been an officially classified monument since 1886, and had housed a maritime-themed museum since 1970, though this appears to be in limbo and I can't find the tower's current function.
A walk along the coast on the West side of Saint Servan will reveal a bit more history: an old lifeboat station, a small tower in the sea that serves as a tide gauge... further up, a WWII memorial with the remains of concrete bunkers, and further along, a view of Saint Malo. It's a worthwhile detour for people visiting Saint Malo, especially if you're concerned that the city centre will be too crowded. But I think I remember parking here wasn't easy either; on a nice day, the locals who don't want the hassle of "intra-muros" would come here.
Three castles above Éguisheim
The village of Husseren-les-Châteaux is a peculiar one: at 1.2 km², it is the smallest commune in Southern Alsace, totally surrounded by Éguisheim. Beyond the vineyards, in the hills above the village and on the border with Éguisheim, are three castles, separated by... nothing.
Unlike other places where several castles can be found, such as Andlau or Ribeauvillé, this was only one unit, with the Dagsbourg and Weckmund being extensions of the original Wahlenbourg in the middle. Each section had its own dungeon.
I visited with my sister on a very overcast day two years ago, with low cloud descending on the hills. It made for some moody shots. We weren't alone up there - which was probably helpful! Also we used a car, and the car park isn't far, so it wasn't a creepy hike up or down.
As for the castle itself, it was destroyed during the Six Deniers War in 1466. The Habsburgs intended to conquer Mulhouse, and used the flimsy pretext of a miller being owed six deniers to start the invasion. But Mulhouse found allies in neighbouring Swiss cantons (before the Swiss Confederation was a thing) and won, taking out the fortress of Éguisheim along the way... as well as the miller whose complaint gave the Habsburgs the excuse they were waiting for.
Ruine Schauenburg
My hike in July took me to the South side of Oberkirch, while on the North side sit the ruins of Schauenburg castle. It's a short, but steep, climb from town centre (or you can drive up).
The castle was built at the end of the 11th century by the Duke of Swabia. It saw action mainly in disputes between local lords, most notably after much of the land around the castle was sold to the Margrave of Baden-Baden, around 35 km to the North. It became a ruin following a French invasion in 1689.
Today, a restaurant sits beside the ruin. When I was last there, there was a camera stand to take a clean selfie - you know, the one where you set a timer instead of holding at arm's length. That's where my photo on my professional website comes from.
As is the case from the South side, the castle has a good view of the Rhine plains, and Strasbourg cathedral sticks out. It would have stuck out even more back in the day, without the modern tower blocks. The lords of Schauenburg would have seen the massive gothic cathedral and its monumental spire being built... over the course of a few centuries.
Grand Geroldseck castle - only a cat of different coat
Close to impressive Haut-Barr castle, a one-hour hike from Saverne, sit two more ruins. All of these castles were built around the same time, late 10th to early 11th century, but despite being so close, they weren't owned by the same people.
While Haut-Barr was under the control of the Bishop of Strasbourg, the two Geroldseck castles, the Petit and the Grand, were built by the Geroldseck family, in charge of protecting the lands of the Abbey of Marmoutier. At the time, Alsace was part of the Holy Roman Empire and divided into many largely independent pieces, so these castles facing each other were on a border of sorts. However, the male Geroldseck line went extinct at the end of the 12th century, and the land was co-owned by so many people that no-one was maintaining the castle. The last stand came in 1471, when a group of disgruntled knights used it as their base. The Imperial bailiff laid siege, won and the castle was left as a ruin after that.
While Haut-Barr castle gets a lot of visitors, owing to the possibility of driving there, the Grand Geroldseck is worth the extra walk and brief climb from its neighbour. As well as the dungeon, lots of walls and rooms are still present, making it an interesting place to explore. The remaining walls continue to receive restoration work - there seem to be a few differences between my first visit with @teamroquette and my second this summer, for example, I don't remember seeing the little garden a few years ago.
All that's left to say is: "OI YOU!... YES, YOU! Have a good time."
Little Red Riding Hood - Daniel Egnéus
me, eating a pile of nuts, cheese, and apple: mmmm tasty
the medieval peasant in my head watching me eat: thou knowst what would MAKETH this meal? dried fruits.
me, getting out the raisins: god damn, etheldred, you are SO right
the medieval peasant in my head: yet thou art still not heeding mine words regarding the blasphemy
Antwerpeni kikötő labirintus
Szegény fiú eltévedt rakodás közben a XVI. századi antwerpeni kikötőben. Segíts neki eljutni a főnökéhez aki már az öszvér mellett vár az utolsó hordóra! Ha végeztél a labirintussal, keresd meg a városban az 5 ékszeresládát és 5 patkányt. Haladni az utcákon, az pöttyözött vonallal jelölt alagutakban és a hajók közti deszkákon lehet. Ingyenes kinyomtatható verzió: https://goo.gl/F82rq1
Antwerp harbour maze
Poor young lad has got lost in the 16th century harbour of Antwerp, help him find the way through the town to his boss, who is waiting with the mule for the last barrel. Can you spot all 5 chests and 5 rats hidden in the town? You can walk on the streets, through the tunnels marked with dotted lines and on wooden planks between ships. Free print & play version: https://goo.gl/F82rq1
Winter scene with a wanderer
Téli jelenet vándorral
Robin Hood labirintus
Ójaj! Robin Hood túl sok időt töltött Lady Marian társaságában és késésben van! Segíts neki, hogy odataláljon útonálló barátaihoz akik már várják, hogy elinduljanak egy jót rabolni. Az erdőben 9 állat és 9 ház rejtőzik, megtalálod mindet? A lombok között a fa pallókon lehet közlekedni, a kötelekkel le lehet mászni a földre vagy vissza a lombokba és ha egyszer már a földön vagy, a pallók alatt is áthaladhatsz. A letölthető és kinyomtatható változat itt: https://goo.gl/cDjtiB
Robin Hood maze
Oops, Robin Hood spent too much time with Maid Marian. Help him find the way through their camp to his Merry Men, who are waiting for him to rob the rich. Can you spot all 9 animals and 9 houses hidden in Sherwood Forest? You can walk on the wooden planks, use the ropes to climb down to the ground and back up to the treetops, also you can pass under the planks once you are on the ground. For the free print & play version: https://goo.gl/cDjtiB
The medieval castle of Csesznek, Hungary 🏰
The first illustration is a hypothetical reconstruction in its 18th century form, the second is the current condition. Old illustrations and the works of F. König, Ferenc Tamás and Tomatas were used as references for the reconstruction.
A cseszneki vár 🏰
A feltételezett rekonstrukció a 18. századi állapotot mutatja, a második kép pedig a jelenlegi helyzetet. A rekonstrukcióhoz korabeli metszeteket, König F., Tamás Ferenc és Tomatas munkáit használtam fel.
Coat of arms of Budapest.
Szegény lovag eltévedt a városban. Szerencsére segíthetsz neki, hogy hazataláljon a tornyába! A kinyomtatható labirintus innen letölthető: http://goo.gl/1X84bQ
This poor knight lost in town and can't find the way back to his tower. Fortunately you can help him find the rigth way! For the free print & play version: http://goo.gl/1X84bQ
The naked witch
Ex libris for a couple, who wanted to have the EU flag and something related to witchcraft combined in a stamp. I used two orientations in order to combine these motifs with the personal nature of the ex libris. When the stamp is in landscape direction, you can see the stars of the EU flag in their proper position, and Gelly’s name is legible. When you see the witch riding a goat, you can see Perbellini’s name on the top, in this state the circle of stars acts as a witchcraft motif. I really enjoyed to work on this, because I could design in a relative big size (50×66.6mm), therefore I was able play with details (eg.: there are three fogs in the swamp, representing the coat of arms of the devil) and style as well.
A meztelen boszorkány
Ezen az ex libris pecséten az EU zászló és valamilyen boszorkánysággal kapcsolatos témát kellett kombinálnom egy párnak. A különböző motívumokat különböző irányokba rendeztem el. Amikor a pecsét fekszik az EU zászló csillagai és a hozzá kapcsolódó Gelly név kerülnek jó állásba, amikor a boszorkányt látjuk álló pozícióban Perbellini neve olvasható normál nézetben. Nagyon jó volt ezen dolgozni, a relatív nagy mérete (50×66,6mm), a stílus amiben rajzolhattam és a részletek (pl.: a mocsárban ott van három béka, ami sátán címerét jelképzi) miatt.
Ezeket a középkori házakat nem tudtam felhasználni végül, de nagyon megkedveltem őket.
These medieval houses weren’t added to the illustration finally, but I liked them.
Így fogunk kinézni Rebekával ha a továbbiakban is tartjuk a napi sütiadagot. (Meg ha levágom a szakállam). Vajon lesznek még divatosak ezek a csuklyák az életünkben?
Our future with Rebeka after eating a ton of cake everyday. (And if I shave off my beard). I wonder if these hoods will return to fashion in our life?
Misztótfalusi
Ezt tegnap rajzoltam, de ez egyelőre még csak egy próbarajz egy készülő könyvhöz. Misztótfalusi éppen a szakácskönyvét nyomtatja. Már biztos fáradt volt, hogy az első oldalon fejjel lefelé szedte a címet.
Miklós Tótfalusi Kis
This is a draft for an upcoming book. Tótfalusi, the famous Hungarian printer is printing his cook-book. Poor Tótfalusi must be very tired, he has set the first page upside down.